Below left: Tania weighing potatoes. Below right: Recording number and weight of corn picked for dinner.

Below left: onions drying. Below right: garlic drying.  We found that fall-planted garlic benefits from an additional layer of compost worked in gently in the late winter, when it begins growing again.  In a side-by-side comparison, bulbs getting additional compost were 26% heavier.

We report our yields in our chart below (“Yields at Neo-Terra” ). Column 2 (blue text) shows the Jeavons yields: L for low, M – medium, and H – for high. With our increasing sun, we have moved to the medium range on many of our crops. We exceed Jeavons high yields with beans and, earlier, with raspberries. We abandoned parsnips for a time as it never did well in our heavy soils, but have recently reintroduced it with greater success.

Bottom row (red text) shows one of the most important indicators of performance in biointensive: the cover crop ratio. This is the percent of time that your beds are in cover crop during the year. Jeavons has determined that with a percentage of 60%, you can build soil fertility without adding any additional carbon. Since we have many hardwood trees in our yard, we compost our leaves and this allows us to reduce the cover crop ratio. We have averaged 40% over the past nine years. Achieving this ratio requires considerable discipline in harvesting crops, cleaning beds, and seeding to cover crops. We follow the calendar here. Thus, we do not leave our tomatoes and pole beans in until the last ones can be pulled from the vines. To do so would stint the time required for fall cover crops. For us, our cover crops are every bit as important as our food crops. Without good cover crops we cannot get good food crops.

Below: our spring cover crops showing rye and rye/vetch combinations. Where pea trellis is visible we had grown a fall crop of oats, which winter-killed in time to decompose for early planting of peas.

4.2 Experiments

We’ve conducted numerous experiments over the years. We summarize the results here:

1) Sheet Composting. One of the claimed shortcuts to digging a bed is to use sheet composting. In this technique, you lay cardboard or newsprint on top of the area you wish to dig. You then pile compost on top of that, and finish with a layer of mulch. You wait. In our case, the grass was clearly killed, but the area below was the yellow greasy clay we had before. When I thought about it, I realized no self-respecting earthworm was going to leave the richness of compost to burrow into yellow clay. We concluded that sheet composting doesn’t work where it is required, and works where it isn’t necessary. It is a waste of compost, better dug into your garden bed.

Below: winter bed with sheet composting experiment.

In a hearty exchange on this experiment, Frank Teuton of Montreal distinguished between our sheet composting and his sheet mulching. He suggested we might have had better results had we used raw organic material rather than finished compost as a mulch over sod, and let the earthworms do the work. Raw mulch materials could include shredded leaves, paper, cardboard, coffee grounds, fresh manures, etc. This method really only works with the big night crawler Lumbricus terrestris (spatulate tails) which draws organic material deep into vertical burrows, thus adding organic matter and aerating soil at the same time. The night crawler should not be confused with Esenia fetida, a little worm which breeds rapidly and lives in letter (little wriggler). This latter is the worm of choice for high speed vermicomposting with large numbers of worms, and is suitable for outdoor and indoor vermicomposting systems of various kinds.

Teuton concedes that if the big earthworms can't be established, then the argument for deep mechanical working of the soil becomes stronger (as Jeavons does with double digging, or farmers do with mechanical tillage). In this case, deeply incorporate finished compost rather than raw organic matter. Doing the latter may lead to anaerobic decomposition, creation of toxins and noxious gasses (e.g., methane).

Frank's time frame for completion of a bed: fall to spring if earthworms are present, longer if not (up to 5 years for the population to build).  Sheet mulching follows what farmers have traditionally done by spreading manure over ploughed fields.

Of course, we in suburban backyards do not have the soil of good farmers, nor are we prepared to wait for several years. Mechanical breaking of the soil is required. If you have the soils, the earthworms and the time you may want to experiment.

In the absence of burrowing nightcrawlers, two additional caveats are worth mentioning. First, raw animal manures can carry pathogens.  One way to eliminate pathogens is through the heat of proper composting (Elaine Ingham). Another is to pass pathogens through two systems. Thus, spreading raw manure on fields to grow grains, and then feeding the grains to grazing animals clears the pathogens so that we can eat the meat (or eggs if chickens graze on the grains). The second caveat: organic matter lying on top of the ground, especially finished but also raw, oxidizes to carbon dioxide, especially during the heat and moisture of the growing season. In short, use it or lose it (though if properly dried, you can store it for a period of time, as Jeavons mentions).

2) Crop Spacing. Since our yields of root crops were so low prior to removing the two trees, we conducted experiments on crop spacing, and determined the following. With beets and carrots, we could increase both size and yields by increasing spacing – from 4 to 5” for beets, and from 3 to 4” for carrots. With onions, we could get either higher yields at 4” or larger onions at 5” but not both. We have stuck to higher yields at 4".  Increasing distance for peas from 3" to 4" lowered yields, so we stuck with using 3". 

3) Verticillim wilt. Many years ago I introduced a diseased Early Girl tomato plant I purchased at a greenhouse. Unknown to me, it had verticillium wilt. I thought the wilted look was just due to dry conditions, but didn’t think much about it. I composted the debris, and unwittingly used the diseased compost in the following year’s tomato bed. That year I lost 3/4 of our tomatoes to wilt. I then took a diseased plant to the pathology lab at Penn State, and got the diagnosis. I remembered that Jeavons wrote that fava (bell) beans counteract wilt, so the next year I planted fava beans in early April, and put the same tomato varieties in the same bed. Mortality dropped to 1/4th. Since that time, we always precede tomatoes with bell beans. We have reduced wilt even further.

4) Experiments with peas. We had poor germination due to seed rot on direct seeding. In side-by-side comparisons in flats, we tried using neem and cayenne pepper to control the fungal rot no avail. Finally, I thought to plant peas in a flat with a sterile mix of peat moss and sand, 50-50. We achieved excellent germination, but we had to transplant. Small price to pay for spring peas. Our peas also suffer from Aschochyta blight, a fungus already in our soil. We tried several fungicides, including neem, copper, and potassium bicarbonate, to little avail. We will try Serenade this year, which worked well last summer against late tomato blight.

5) Controls against oriental fruit moth in peaches. Many gardeners who are otherwise organic in vegetable production often throw in the towel when it comes to tree fruit production. The first year our two peach trees came into production, we had wonderful, disease-free peaches. Then the oriental fruit moth found our trees and took up residence. The fruit was wormy, and covered with dried sap ooze. One year I tried pheromone traps, one in each tree. Results improved markedly. The traps were full of dead moth.

6) Potato experiments. Over the years we’ve conducted careful same-season tests with potatoes. These have included comparisons of early, mid and late season varieties; comparisons of traditional row-hill vs. hexagonal bed planting following Jeavons; and comparisons with finished vs. unfinished compost. We were intent on improving our poor yields. We collected excellent data, but in the end gave up on potatoes. No method overcame what we concluded was an underlying limiting factor: insufficient sunlight in our shaded back yard. When we removed two large trees shading the garden, yields jumped dramatically – doubling over the previous high.  This year we will try sweet potatoes: much more nutritious than Irish potatoes.

4.3 What We Do With Our Produce

1) First, we eat well. Our food is fresh, right from the garden, as pictured below.  We have many vegetarian cookbooks. One of our favorites is “From Asparagus to Zucchini: A Guide to Farm-Fresh Seasonal Produce” produced by the Madison Area Community Supported Agriculture Coalition.

2) Second, the addition of our winter greenhouse enables us to eat fresh greens through much of the fall and winter. This has taken the pressure off having to store or put up vegetables from the summer.

3) Third, we store food in several ways (see chart and photo series below).

Below: Harvesting St. John’s Wort and turning it into tincture.

Below left: washing Ashwaganda roots. Below right: chopping valerian roots prior to soaking in vodka.

Above: finished tinctures.
Below left: dried herb mixtures. Below right: horehound cough drops.

Above left: canned vegetables, jams, including row of green beans being preserved by lactic fermentation.  Above right: Jerusalem artichokes being preserved by lactic fermentation.

c)       Schedules and map. We do our garden planning for the year in January, and order seeds and supplies early in the year. We update our garden map and planting schedule and put them in the garden notebook section for the current garden year. We can email the planting schedules to you.

d)       Metrics page. The first page in our current garden year section is our “metrics” page. We will email this to any who ask.

e)       The permanent bed. This allows you to improve the soil year by year. The paths, also permanent, do not consume compost. The standard Jeavons bed is 5 x 20, or 100 sq. ft., but you may find a 4’ wide bed easier to reach into the middle. 

Below:  Three permanent double-dug beds: left to right – raspberries, vegetables, blueberries.

f)        Tools. We use a number of useful but simple tools.  Here they are.

Above left: Our larger tools include digging board, D-handled spade and fork (behind board), U-bar, homemade wooden seed flats, framed chicken wire “planting grid”, and sifter. Above right: smaller hand tools. We especially recommend use of a good bypass pruner (Felco are superior) and a Japanese trowel (which has an extra thick blade and one serrated edge).

Below: Where we start our seedlings. At left is the indoor three-tiered plant stand for warm-weather crops (tomatoes, peppers, basils) that need to be started early; at right is the outdoor mini-greenhouse for cold-tolerant crops and those warm-weather plants that get started in May (like cucumbers and squash).

Above left: winter greenhouse frame of electrical metal tubing (emt) held together with machine screws.

Above right: winter greenhouse covered with Tufflite IV, UV resistant 6 mil greenhouse plastic. Our plastic is in its 11th season. We take it down in April and store it until October.

Below left: view inside our greenhouse. Below right: greenhouse under snow cover.

4)       Avoid the seduction and rhetoric of 100% self-sufficiency. You are never going to grow enough calories in your backyard, sustainably or otherwise. We grow 90% of our vegetables and 40% of our fruit, but only 10% of our calories. On the other hand, since vegetables and fruits are largely water, by growing your own, you avoid importing water from distant places such as California, Mexico, and Chile. Your own food is fresh, full of flavor and nutrient-rich. By the way, the four highest calorie crops for us were potatoes, apples, pears, and blueberries. The highest caloric density crop we grow is burdock, at 300 calories/sq.ft. And, we achieved this past year 20% of our protein requirements, albeit vegetable protein (largest contributors were collards and Brussels sprouts).

5)       Concentrate your food-growing in one area, so that you can fence, water, maintain, harvest and watch things easily. We learned this the hard way by digging beds all around the yard. It looked nice, but became a major maintenance headache, which we are now correcting. When we started, we did not realize that Central PA tends to the dry side, and that suburban gardens attract a lot of animal pests, including bears, deer, raccoons, groundhogs, possums, skunks, rabbits, squirrels, voles and chipmunks.  The first line of defense is Da Fence!  We are amazed at gardeners who garden without a fence – and then complain about critters.

Below: Our main garden, concentrated in one area, behind a fence, with 21 beds.

6)       Pick the sunniest location for your food growing. Sounds obvious, but more sun gives you higher yields. Recall our yield chart: the best years for most crops occurred after we took down two large trees that shaded the garden. Pay particular attention to the way the sun’s location changes during the course of the day and the growing season. We drew a sun chart to identify the best area.

Below: pick the sunniest spot for growing food.

7)       Grow food healthy for YOU.  In determining what to grow, start with an assessment of what for you and other household members constitute healthy foods and diets. Grow those foods. It is not enough becoming a raw foodist, a vegetarian, a vegan, or an omnivore. Food is not just a matter of what you like, but what likes you. That is, strive to be an informed raw foodist, an informed vegetarian, an informed vegan, an informed omnivore. The early vegetarian cookbooks, for example, were heavy on eggs, dairy, beans and rice, putting these forth merely as alternatives to fatty meat. We have come a long way since then in understanding healthy diets. 

In his book “Live Right 4 Your Type,” Peter D’Adamo correlates foods that are beneficial, neutral or harmful to your blood type. Gene realized that foods he had difficulty digesting were those D’Adamo suggested he should avoid. Folding in Tania’s food sensitivities, we stopped growing Jerusalem artichokes, took out most of our rhubarb, and dramatically reduced tomato consumption. This freed up garden space, time and compost to grow other crops: burdock, brussels sprouts, more berries and bush fruit. Our latest addition is the goji berry which we grew from seeds pried out of dried fruit purchased from a local health food store. With our winter greenhouse, we eat fresh vegetables during the fall and winter. To store food, we dry, use lactic fermentation, and freeze fruit and some vegetables. Here, Eliot Coleman’s “Keeping Food Fresh” was helpful. In adopting a new diet, take heart from nutritional scientists who determined that a dietary change followed for 18 days becomes yours. What some call “comfort foods” is a matter of bad habit. Make new habits.

Below: Grow food healthy for you – example references.  

8)       Highlight bush fruit, background tree fruit. With tree fruit, we have not been able to overcome the difficulties of slope, shade, humidity and poor air circulation.  Handling diseases, insect pests, and animals have made the venture not worth the effort. We are shifting to bush fruit. Lee Reich, with his marvelous book “Uncommon Fruits for Every Garden,” has made us aware of so many choices – not just delicious, but also healthy. But choose cultivars carefully. Gooseberries and juneberries for example vary considerably in habit, flavor, yield, disease and pest susceptibility and cultivation requirements. Pick your nurseries carefully. Whether you are limited in space or time, you cannot afford to waste either on generic shrubs. If something doesn’t pan out, pull it and try something else. No experimentation, no learning.

Below:  Consider fruit-bearing shrubs as alternatives to tree fruit.

9)       Include plants – herbs and flowers -- that for you have important other benefits. For example, plants that strengthen your immune system, help with particular chronic or acute conditions, or attract beneficials. Thus, we grow Echinacea, a beautiful perennial, whose roots we use to make a powerful tincture which boosts our immunity to colds and flu. We learned that the stronger Echinacea is augustifolia, so we began growing that, and will turn over spots occupied by Echinacea purpurea to other plants, keeping some for the bees who love the summer blossoms, and goldfinches who love the fall seeds. One recommended anti-flu remedy combines Echinacea with garlic and cayenne, so we grow all three.

Below:  Echinacea augustifolia (left); Echinacea purpurea (upper right); Gene’s favorite immune system builder and cold-flu remedy: hot peppers, Echinacea tincture, garlic (lower right).

10)   Set yourself on a course to improve your competence. Acquire good tools; try your hand at designing and building your own garden devices; use good references, field guides, cookbooks, herbal primers.   

a)       Our favorite tools: English forged steel spading shovels, Felco pruners, hori-hori trowel, kneepads, and Atlas nitrile-coated gloves.

Below:  Tania transplanting mache into our winter greenhouse bed with her favorite tools: English forged spading shovel and spading fork, Felco pruners, hori-hori trowel, Atlas gloves and good kneepads.

b)       Our most useful devices we made: our mini and winter greenhouses, hog wire cages for tomatoes and tomatillos that double as plant protectors in the winter, our collapsible pea trellis, our drying rack, and a sturdy workbench on wheels.

Below: Garden devices we have built. Upper left: tomato cages from hog wire fencing (foreground), 8’ stakes for pole beans (middle), pea trellis (background).  Lower left: drying rack with garlic. Right: our two mini-greenhouses for starting seedlings. 

c)       Our most-used references: Bargyla Rateaver’s “Organic Method Primer Update,” John Jeavons “How to Grow More Vegetables,” Whitney Cranshaw’s “Garden Insects of North America,” Lee Reich’s “Uncommon Fruits for Every Garden,” The Madison Area CSA Cookbook “From Asparagus to Zucchini,” MacNab, Sherf and Springer “Identifying Diseases of Vegetables,” Penelope Ody’s “The Complete Medicinal Herbal” together with James Duke’s “The Green Pharmacy,” and Eliot Coleman’s “Keeping Food Fresh.” Our favorite seed catalog is Fedco.

Below: some of our most-used references.

11)   Lastly, create a place of beauty. We believe the beauty of your place will creep up on you as you master these and other lessons. In retrospect, the following three aspects have helped us. First, adding edging to perennial beds keeps invasive weeds and grasses out.  Second, we prefer the look of grassy paths to dirt, straw, mulch or boards.  Third, we aim for all the senses: visual, fragrances, tactile, sounds, and of course taste.

Below: using plastic edging to separate grassy paths from perennial beds reduces weeding.

A place of beauty ….

We hope you’ll dig in!  Please visit the rest of our website to learn more about our work and offerings.  Contact us at NeoTerraExpts@aol.com or via our contacts webpage if you have any questions on our PASA 2010 presentation.